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Showing posts from March, 2023

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INTERPRETATION OF FLOWNET - IN SOIL MECHANICS

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INTERPRETATION OF FLOW NET - IN SOIL MECHANICS : FLOW RATE: Let the total head loss across the flow domain be ΔH, that is, the difference between upstream and downstream water level elevation.  Then the head loss (Δh) between each consecutive pair of equipotential lines is  ∆h = ∆H/Nd  where Nd is the number of equipotential drops,  that is = the number of equipotential lines minus one.  Therefore, Δh = ΔH/Nd  From Darcy’s law, the flow rate is  q= k.H.Nf /Nd  where Nf is the number of flow channels (number of flow lines minus one). The ratio N f /N d is called the shape factor. Finer discretization of the flow-net by drawing more flow lines and equipotential lines does not significantly change the shape factor.    Hydraulic Gradient: You can find the hydraulic gradient over each curvilinear square by dividing the head loss by the length, L.that is, i= ∆h/L  You should notice that L is not constant. Therefo...
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Walls and Its Type - In Civil Engineering Study

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Walls and Its Type - Civil ENGINEERING study Walls are built to partition living area into different parts.They impart privacy and protection against temperature, rain and theft.  Walls may be classified as  1. Load bearing walls  2. Partition walls.  1. Load Bearing Walls:  If beams and columns are not used, load from roof and floors are transferred to foundation by walls. Such walls are called load bearing walls.  They are to be designed to transfer the load safely.  The critical portion of the walls are near the openings of doors and windows and the positions where concrete beams rest.       Minimum wall thickness used is 200 mm. It is also recommended that the slenderness ratio of wall defined as ratio of effective length or effective height to thickness should not be more than 27. The effective height and effective length of a wall may be taken as shown in tables respectively.     Effective height of walls in te...
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PHASES OF SOIL INVESTIGATION WORK

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PHASES OF A SOILS INVESTIGATION    The scope of a soils investigation depends on  The type, size, and importance of the structure;  The client and Economy;  The engineer’s familiarity with the soils at the site; and  Local building codes.  Structures that are sensitive to settlement such as machine foundations and high-use buildings usually require a more thorough soils investigation than a foundation for a house. A client may wish to take a greater risk than normal to save money and set limits on the type and extent of the site investigation.       You should be cautious about any attempt to reduce the extent of a soils investigation below a level that is desirable for assuming acceptable risks for similar projects on or within similar ground conditions.      If the geotechnical engineer is familiar with a site, he/she may undertake a very simple soils investigation to confrm hi...
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Lime - Tests on Limestone

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Tests on Limestones  The following practical tests are made on limestones to determine their suitability: (i) Physical tests  (ii) Heat test  (iii) Chemical test  (iv) Ball test.    (i) Physical Test:       Pure limestone is white in colour. Hydraulic limestones are bluish grey, brown or are having dark colours. The hydraulic lime gives out earthy smell. They are having clayey taste. The presence of lumps give indication of quick lime and unburnt lime stones.    (ii) Heat Test:       A piece of dry stone weighing W1 is heated in an open fire for few hours. If weight of sample after cooling is W2, the loss of weight is W2 – W1. The loss of weight indicates the amount of carbon dioxide. From this the amount of calcium carbonate in limestone can be worked out.    (iii) Chemical Test:       A teaspoon full of lime is placed in a test tube and dilute hydrochloric acid is poured in i...
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Building with Lime: Past, Present, and Potential, Types and Properties

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  Building with Lime:  Past, Present, and Potential, Types and Properties Lime It is an important binding material used in building construction. Lime has been used as the material of construction from ancient time. When it is mixed with sand it provides lime mortar and when mixed with sand and coarse aggregate, it forms lime concrete.  Lime is a versatile material that finds applications in various fields, including construction, agriculture, and chemistry. There are two primary types of lime: quicklime (calcium oxide, CaO) and hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2). Let's explore some aspects of lime: Production: Quicklime (CaO): Produced by heating limestone (calcium carbonate, CaCO3) at high temperatures (typically around 900–1000°C) in a process known as calcination. Hydrated Lime (Ca(OH)2): Produced by treating quicklime with water. Uses: Construction: Lime has been traditionally used in construction for various purposes, such as mortar and plaster. I...
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Index Properties and Key Parameter of Soil - Civil Engineering

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Index Properties and Parameters of Soil  DEFINITIONS OF BASIC KEY TERMS OF SOIL Index Properties of Soil   Water Content Water content (w) is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solids.often expressed as a percentage Index Properties of Soil  Void Ratio Void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of void spaces to the volume of solids.The void ratio is usually expressed as a decimal quantity.   Index Properties of Soil  Porosity Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of soil.    Index Properties of Soil  Degree of Saturation Degree of saturation (S) is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids.    Index Properties of Soil  Bulk Unit weight Bulk unit weight (γ) is the weight density, that is, the weight of a soil per unit volume.    Index Properties of Soil  Saturated Unit Weight Saturated unit weight (γsat) is the weight of a saturated soil per unit volume....
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Common Building Stones - Qualities and Uses

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The Qualities and Uses of common Building Stones  Common Building Stones  The following are the some of commonly used stones:  (i) Basalt and trap  (ii) Granite  (iii) Sand stone  (iv) Slate  (v) Laterite  (vi) Marble  (vii) Gneiss   (viii) Quartzite.    Their qualities and uses of Building Stone (i) Basalt and Trap:       The structure is medium to fine grained and compact. Their colour varies from dark gray to black. Fractures and joints are common. Their weight varies from 18 kN/m3 to 29 kN/m3. The compressive strength varies from 200 to 350 N/mm2. These are igneous rocks. They are used as road metals, aggregates for concrete. They are also used for rubble masonry works for bridge piers, river walls and dams. They are used as pavement. qualities and uses of Building Stone    (ii) Granite:       Granites are also igneous rocks. The colour varies from light gray to pink. T...
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Stability of Slopes in Earth Dam

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Stability of Slopes in Civil Engineering point slopes of earth are of two types 1. Natural slopes 2. Man made slopes The slopes whether natural or artificial may be 1. Infinite slopes 2. Finite slopes Slope stability - It is very important in design and construction of earth dam. the result of slope failure can often be catastrophic, involving the loss of property and many lives Causes of Failure of Slopes 1.Gravitational Forces 2. Seepage Forces - forces due to seepage water. 3.Erosion of the surface of slopes due to flowing water 4.The sudden lowering of water adjacent to a slope 5. Forces due to earthquakes Erosion n the surface of a slope may be the cause of the removal of a certain weight of soil, and may thus lead to an increased stability as far as mass movement is concerned. On the other hand, erosion in the form of undercutting at the toe may increase the height of the slope, or decrease the length of the incipient failure surface, thus decreasing the stability. When there is ...
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The Economist Nicholas Stern gave the most Impressive analysis in the year 2006 on

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The Economist Nicholas Stern gave the most Impressive analysis in the year 2006 on  The Economist Nicholas Stern gave the most Impressive analysis in the year 2006 on - Climate Change     In 2006 climate economist Nicholas Stern published the Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change , a report that offered the first systematic examination of the costs of addressing climate change and impacts on the global economy. The report marked a fundamental shift away from climate change being viewed primarily as an issue of science, to also being one of economics. Read more    
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Canal Falls - Irrigation Engineering

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CANAL FALLS  Whenever the available natural ground slope is steeper than the designed bed slope of the channel, the difference is adjusted by constructing vertical ‘falls’ or ‘drops’.  Types of falls  1. Ogee falls: Water is gradually led down by providing convex and concave curves.  2. Rapid falls:  Long slopes of 1 : 15 to 1 : 20 with boulder facings are known as rapids. They are quite satisfactory but very expensive and hence became obsolete.  3. Trapezoidal Notch Falls:  It consists of a number of trapezoidal notches across the channel wit h a smooth entrance and a flat circular lip projecting downstream from each notch. There will be neither drawdown nor heading up of water, as the channel approaches the fall. Now these are obsolete since simpler, economical and better modern falls are developed.     Well type/cylinder/syphon well falls:  This type consists of two wells, one for inlet and another for outlet connected by a pipe...
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Docks and Harbour - Civil Engineering study

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 Docks and Harbour      Harbour is a sheltered area of the sea in which vessels can be launched, built or taken for repair or could seek refuge in time of storm and provide facilities for loading and unloading of cargo and passengers.      Port is a harbour where terminal facilities like stores, landing of passengers and cargo are added. TYPES OF HARBOURS 1. Natural harbour It is an inlet protected from storms and waves by natural configuration of land.Mumbai, Kandla and Karwar are examples of natural harbours. 2. Semi-natural harbour The harbour in which natural configuration of land prefects the harbour on sides only and needs man-made protection at the entrance. Vishakhapatnam is a semi-natural harbour. 3. Artificial harbour It is harbours protected by man-made structures like breakwaters or bydredging. Chennai is a man-made harbour.   Classification Based on Utility 1. Harbour of refuge: Used to anchor ships in storms. 2. Fisheries harbours. ...
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Stiffeners - Plate Girder

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STIFFENERS - PLATE GIRDER What is Stiffener In  steel  building  construction when  the web  of  a  plate  girder  acting  alone  (that is  without stiffeners)  proves  inadequate,  stiffeners  may  be  provided  for  specific purpose as follows.  To improve the buckling strength of a slender web due to shear intermediate  transverse  and  longitudinal web stiffeners;  to  prevent  local  buckling of  the web  due  to  concentrated  loading load-carrying stiffener. To  prevent  local crushing of the web due to concentrated loading bearing stiffener;  To provide torsional restraint to beams and girders at supports torsional stiffener; To provide local reinforcement to a web under shear and bearing diagonal stiffener. To transmit tensile forces applied to a web through a flange—tension stiffener are provided....
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Matrix Method of Structure Analysis - Stiffness and Flexibility one liner

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Matrix Method of Analysis Stiffness Method of Analysis Int the stiffness method of analysis it is not essential to select the redundant or to know whether the structure is determinate or indeterminate. Base unknowns to be determined in the analysis are the displacement components of various joints. For calculation of displacement and establishment of equation of equilibrium we develop stiffness matrix. It is necessary to identify the redundants in force method of analysis. In stiffness method displacements/ roatation (degree of freedom) are unknown. In the Kani's method of anlysis, actual end moment in any member is calculated by superposition of fixed end moment, moment due to rotation of near end and far end and moment due to displancement and sway of plane fram. In stiffness method of analysis joint displacements are unknown which are equal to the kinematic inderminacy of the structure. Stiffness matrix are always symmetrical about its main diagonal due to Maxwell's recipr...
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